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Introduction to Programming 2
Python · 4 лекции · Основы, управление потоком, коллекции, файлы
- Python — интерпретируемый, высокоуровневый язык с динамической типизацией
- Переменные хранят данные; тип определяется автоматически при присваивании
- Основные типы:
int,float,str,bool - Функции определяются через
def, возвращают значение черезreturn - Ввод/вывод:
input()возвращает строку,print()выводит данные
Переменные и типы данных
Python динамически типизирован — тип переменной определяется в момент присваивания. Используй type() для проверки типа.
Приведение типов
Явное преобразование между типами с помощью встроенных функций int(), float(), str(), bool().
Операторы
Арифметические: + - * / // % **. Сравнения: == != < > <= >=. Логические: and or not.
Функции
Определяются через def. Могут принимать параметры со значениями по умолчанию и возвращать несколько значений через кортеж.
Строки и f-strings
Строки неизменяемы. F-строки (f"...") — удобный способ вставки переменных. Методы: .upper(), .split(), .strip(), .replace().
Ввод и вывод
input() всегда возвращает строку — не забывай приводить к нужному типу. print() поддерживает sep и end.
if / elif / else— ветвление; условия вычисляются сверху внизwhile— цикл, пока условие True;for— итерация по последовательностиbreak— выход из цикла;continue— следующая итерация;pass— заглушкаrange(start, stop, step)— генерирует числовую последовательность- Вложенные циклы: внешний и внутренний,
breakостанавливает только ближайший
Условные операторы
Python использует отступы (4 пробела) для обозначения блоков. Нет {} как в C/Java.
Цикл for
Итерирует по любому итерируемому объекту: строке, списку, range, словарю и т.д.
Цикл while
Выполняется, пока условие True. Важно не забыть обновление переменной-счётчика, иначе бесконечный цикл.
Управление циклом
break — полный выход. continue — пропустить итерацию. pass — ничего не делать (заглушка).
Функция range()
range(stop), range(start, stop), range(start, stop, step). Не включает stop. Шаг может быть отрицательным.
Вложенные циклы
Цикл внутри цикла. Используется для матриц, таблиц умножения, перебора комбинаций.
- list [] — упорядоченная изменяемая коллекция, индексы от 0, поддерживает срезы
- tuple () — как list, но неизменяемый; быстрее, используется для фиксированных данных
- dict {key: val} — пары ключ-значение; ключи уникальны, порядок сохраняется (Python 3.7+)
- set {} — уникальные элементы без порядка; быстрая проверка принадлежности
- List comprehension:
[expr for x in iterable if cond]— компактное создание списков
Списки (list)
Изменяемая последовательность. Методы: .append(), .insert(), .remove(), .pop(), .sort(), .reverse().
Кортежи (tuple)
Неизменяемая последовательность. Используй для данных, которые не должны меняться: координаты, RGB, константы.
Словари (dict)
Пары ключ-значение. Методы: .keys(), .values(), .items(), .get(key, default).
Множества (set)
Уникальные элементы, нет индексов. Операции: объединение |, пересечение &, разность -.
Списковые включения
Компактный способ создания списков. Заменяет цикл for с append. Поддерживает условие фильтрации.
enumerate и zip
enumerate() даёт индекс и значение. zip() объединяет несколько итерируемых объектов попарно.
open(file, mode)— открывает файл; режимы: r, w, a, r+, rb, wb- Контекстный менеджер
with open(...) as f:— автоматически закрывает файл - Методы:
.read(),.readline(),.readlines(),.write(),.writelines() - Модуль
csv— чтение/запись CSV черезcsv.readerиcsv.DictReader - Модуль
json—json.load()/json.dump()для работы с JSON-файлами
Открытие файлов
Режимы: "r" чтение, "w" запись (перезапись), "a" добавление, "rb"/"wb" бинарный режим.
Методы чтения
.read() — весь файл как строка. .readline() — одна строка. .readlines() — список строк.
Запись в файл
"w" создаёт файл или перезаписывает. "a" добавляет в конец. .write() не добавляет \n автоматически.
Работа с CSV
Модуль csv — для табличных данных. csv.reader — строки как списки. csv.DictReader — строки как словари.
Работа с JSON
json.load(f) — из файла в Python dict/list. json.dump(data, f) — из Python в файл. json.loads/dumps — строки.
Обработка ошибок при работе с файлами
Файлы могут не существовать — оборачивай в try/except. Основные исключения: FileNotFoundError, PermissionError.
History of Kazakhstan
⚠️ Государственный экзамен · 4 семинара · Государственность → Тюрки → Монголы → Колониализм
- Statehood signs: public authority, taxes, territory, laws, symbols, sovereignty
- Early nomads (Saka, VIII–II BC): Military democracy — power through warrior-leaders, inherited rule
- Wusuns (II BC–V AD): Created own state in Semirechye; ruler titled kunbek
- Kangju (II BC–V AD): Syrdarya valley; ruler titled Great Khan; 5 internal possessions
- Huns (IV–III BC–V AD): Largest tribal formation; split into Northern and Southern in 47 BC
- First Turkic states: Turkic Khaganate (551) → Western Turkic → Turgesh → Karluk → Karakhanids
- Formation of Kazakh Khanate completed the long process of statehood development
Саки — ранняя государственность
Transitional stage: military democracy. Warrior-leaders with inherited power. Subtribes: Tigrahauda (pointed hats, Zhetysu), Paradaraya (Aral Sea), Haumavarga (south). Power structure: popular assembly + military leader.
Усуни
State in Semirechye (Zhetysu), Eastern Kazakhstan, Dzungaria. Head of state: kunbek ("great ruler"), inherited title. From 53 BC: divided into Great Kunbek and Small Kunbek. Had officials (duglu = assistant/executive), tax collectors. Ethnonym preserved in Senior zhuz clan name.
Канглы
Syrdarya valley, Karatau foothills, Talas River. Capital: near modern Turkestan. Ruler: Great Khan + 3 deputy viziers. Divided into 5 possessions, each ruled by a minor khan. Controlled part of the Great Silk Road from Central Asia to the Volga.
Гунны
Largest tribal formation that changed the ethnic/political map of Eurasia. In 47 BC split into Southern (submitted to China) and Northern Huns. In 93 AD moved to Tarbagatai. In 2nd century created state of Yuebban in East Kazakhstan. Had organized army, complex administrative apparatus, tax system.
Признаки государственности
Key signs: 1) Public authority separated from society, 2) System of taxes & loans, 3) Territory & borders, 4) Laws, 5) Material resources, 6) State symbols (emblem, flag, anthem), 7) Sovereignty. Statehood = dynamic; State = relatively static & stable.
Образование Казахского ханства
Founded 1465–1466 (per Muhammad Haidar Dulati's "Tarihi and Rashidi"). First rulers: Kerey and Zhanibek, descendants of Orda Ejen, migrated from Khanate of Abulkhair to Chu-Talas valleys (Mogolistan territory). Completed a centuries-long process of statehood development.
- Early Middle Ages (6–10th c.): Turkic Khaganate → Western Turkic → Turgesh → Karluk
- Developed Middle Ages (11–13th c.): Karakhanid → Oghuz → Kimak → Kypchak → Kara-Khitan → Naiman/Khereid
- Turkic Khaganate (551–603): Founded by Bumyn; ruler = kagan; stretched from Korea to Crimea
- Western Turkic (603–704): "On ok budun" (Land of Ten Arrows); main area — Zhetysu
- Turgesh (704–756): Fought Arabs; Battle of Atlakh (751) — Arabs + Karluks defeated Chinese
- Karluk (756–940): Capital Suyab → Balasagun; 25 cities; fell to Karakhanids in 940
- Kypchak (11th c.–1219): Capital Sygnak; territory from Irtysh to Dniester; fell to Mongols
Тюркский каганат
Founded by Bumyn (551–552). Greatest flourishing under Mugan (553–572). Stretched from Korea to Crimea. Ruler = kagan. Privileged clan: Ashin. Assistants: beks. Controlled the Great Silk Road. In 568 sent embassy to Constantinople. Split in 603.
Западный Тюркский каганат
Also called "On ok budun" (Land of 10 Arrows). Main area: Zhetysu. 5 Dulu tribes (east of Chu) + 5 Nushibi (west). Peak under Ton-jabgu-kagan (618–630). Ended with Chinese Tang Empire invasion 640–657.
Тюргешский каганат
Founder: Uch-elik kagan. Divided into 20 tutuks of 7,000 warriors each. Key ruler: Suluk Kagan (715–738) — Arabs called him "Abu Muzahim". Battle of Atlakh (July 751): Karluks sided with Arabs, defeated Chinese. Fell to Karluks and Chinese.
Карлукский каганат
3 tribes: Bulak, Chigil, Tashlyk. Capital: Suyab → Balasagun. 25 cities including Taraz, Kulan, Merke. Rulers: Elteber → Zhabgu → Kagan (from 840). In 940 Karakhanids captured Balasagun — khaganate ended.
Государство Карахандов
From Maverannahr to Kashgar. Key tribes: Chigili and Yagma. Ancestor: Satuk Bogra Khan (915–955). Split into Western (Bukhara) and Eastern (Balasagun) khanates c. 1030s. In 960 Islam declared state religion. Fell to Kara-Khitans in 12th century.
Государство Огузов
Middle and lower Syrdarya + Western Kazakhstan steppes. Capital: Yangikent. 24 tribes (12 Buzuk + 12 Uchuk). Ruler = zhabgu. Deputies: kul-erkins. Military leader: subashi. Fell under Kypchak tribes by mid-11th century.
Кыпчакское государство
From Irtysh to Dniester (Desht-i-Kypchak). Capital: Sygnak. Ruler = Khan from El-Borili dynasty. Hierarchy: khans → tarkhans → baskaks → beks → bai. Slaves from prisoners of war. Fell to Mongol invasion; became part of Jochi ulus.
Кимакский каганат
7 tribes: Eimur, Imak, Kypchak, Tatars, Bayandur, Lanikaz, Azhlar. Ruler = zhabgu → kagan (from late 9th c.). 12 uluses. Fell due to Kypchak secession and nomad migrations.
Кара-Китайское ханство
Ruler = gurkhan. First gurkhan: Yelü Dashi. Capital: Balasagun. In 1141 defeated Karakhanids + Seljuks, occupied Bukhara. Khorezm shahs paid 3,000 gold dinars/year tribute. Fell in 1211 when Naimans captured gurkhan.
Найманы и Кереиды
Naimans: Upper Irtysh–Orkhon. Kereids: middle Orkhon. Both had functioning administrative apparatus, decimal army system, customary law, Uighur alphabet. In 1203 Genghis Khan destroyed Kereids; in 1204 defeated Naiman ulus. Later joined Middle Zhuz.
- 1206 — Temujin proclaimed Genghis Khan; empire from Yellow Sea to Mediterranean
- 1218–1219 — Conquest of Kazakhstan: Otrar siege (6 months), cities of Sygnak & Ashnas destroyed
- 1240–1480 — Golden Horde (Ulug Ulus); capital Sarai-Batu; Islam under Uzbek Khan (1312)
- Ak Orda (mid-13th – early 15th c.): capital Sygnak; independence from Golden Horde under Urus Khan
- Moghulistan (mid-14th – early 16th c.): Northeast Central Asia & Semirechye; ruler = khan
- Khanate of Abulkhair (1428–1468): Nomadic Uzbeks; capital Sygnak from 1448; fell after 1468
- 1465–1466 — Kazakh Khanate founded by Kerey & Zhanibek; Kasym Khan unified all major tribes
- 1723–1727 — "Aktaban Shuburyndy" (Great Calamity) — Dzungar invasion
Создание империи Чингисхана
1206: Temujin proclaimed great khan (kurultai on Onon River). Empire 1206–1260. Father: Bagatur Yesugei (Borjigin tribe). Key laws: Yasy. Army structure: darkness (10k) → thousands → hundreds → tens. Capital: Karakorum.
Завоевание Казахстана
1217: Semirechye occupied (population opposed Naiman khan Kuchluk). 1218: 6-month siege of Otrar — reason for invasion (betrayal of warlord Karaj). 1219: Otrar, Sygnak, Ashnas destroyed. 1223: Defeat of Kipchaks and Russians on Kalka River.
Раздел империи между сыновьями
Jochi: west of Irtysh + Northern/Western Kazakhstan. Chagatai: East Turkestan, Semirechye, Maverannahr (capital Almalyk). Ogedei: Western Mongolia, upper Irtysh; supreme khan 1229–1241. Tului: most of Mongolia.
Последствия монгольского завоевания
Negative: Destruction of productive forces, decline of cities, demographic crisis, 20+ types of taxes, slowing formation of Kazakh nation.
Positive: Stimulated trade, uniform laws (Yasy), centralization of power, tolerant attitude toward religions.
Золотая Орда (Улуг Улус)
Founder: Batu Khan (son of Jochi). Capital: Sarai-Batu (near Astrakhan) → Sarai-Berke. Structure: Kurultai → Beklerbek (army/diplomacy) → Diwan → Vezir. Islam declared state religion under Uzbek Khan (1312). Greatest power: Uzbek Khan + Dzhanybek (1342–1357). Fell due to Timur campaigns (1389, 1391, 1394–1395).
Ак Орда
Lands of Jochi's sons: Orda Ejen + Sheiban. By 14th century covered almost all of modern Kazakhstan except Semirechye. Capital: Sygnak. Final independence from Golden Horde under Yerzen and Mubarak-Khoja khans (1320–1344). Significantly strengthened under Khan Urus (1360s–1370s).
Могулистан
NE Central Asia, Semirechye, East Turkestan. Capital: Almalyk. Head of state = khan; assistants = ulusbeks (Dulat tribe). Under Esen Bug in late 1450s, Kazakhs led by Dzhanibek and Kirey migrated here from Eastern Desht-i-Kypchak. Last ruler: Sultan Said Khan (founded Mogulia in 1514).
Ханство Абулхаира
State of Nomadic Uzbeks. From Ural River to Lake Balkhash. Capital: Sygnak (from 1448). In 1457 defeated by Dzungars near Sygnak. After defeat, Kirey and Dzhanibek migrated to Moghulistan with followers. Abulkhair died 1468 on campaign against them — state collapsed.
Казахское ханство: ключевые ханы
Kerey & Zhanibek (1465–66): founders. Kasym Khan (1511–1521): defeated Muhammad Sheibani; united all major tribes; 1 million people; law "Kasym khannyn kaska zholy". Tauke Khan: law "Zhety Zhargy"; stopped Dzungar aggression; later — Aktaban Shuburyndy (1723–1727).
Ногайская Орда
Part of Western Kazakhstan (Mangyt Yurt). Capital: Saraichik. Separation from Golden Horde under Yedyga (1396–1411). Final independence under Nuraddin (1426–1440). Structure: princes + murzas. Fell in 16th century due to civil strife.
- 1731 — Khan Abulkhair of Junior Zhuz accepted Russian protectorate (beginning of colonization)
- Nature of inclusion: debated — gradual military conquest, not purely voluntary
- Russian Empire measures: Reforms 1822–1824, land confiscation, settler colonization
- 10 major uprisings from late 18th to early 20th century
- Syrym Datuly (1783–1797): Junior Zhuz; goal — restore statehood; result: Kazakhs allowed to nomad right bank of Urals
- Isatay & Makhambet (1836–1838): Bukeev Horde; result: end to annual tax increases
- Kenesary Kasymuly (1837–1847): All of Kazakhstan; last all-Kazakh khan; delayed Russian conquest by 10 years
- 1916 National Liberation War: Triggered by decree on "requisition" of men aged 18–43; ~50,000 rebels in Turgay
Восстание Сырыма Датулы
Leader: Syrym Datuly (1753–1802), batyr, foreman of Baibakty clan.
Place: Shores of Edil (Volga) to Aral Sea.
Goals: Revive Kazakh statehood, return lands, stop Cossack violence.
Key events: 1783: closure of nomad routes. 1791: siege of Iletsky Gorodok. 1797: rebels liquidated Russian puppet Yesim Khan.
Result: March 11, 1801 — Kazakhs allowed to nomad on right bank of Urals.
Восстание Исатая и Махамбета
Leaders: Isatay Taimanuly (1791–1838), batyr; Makhambet Utemisuly (1804–1840), poet & ideologist.
Place: Volga–Ural, Caspian coast (Bukeev Horde).
Key events: Oct 1837: siege of khan's residence. Nov 1837: battle in Tastobe tract. Jul 1838: Isatai killed at Akbulak.
Result: End to annual tax increases; tsarist administration began heeding elders.
Восстание Кенесары Касымулы
Leader: Kenesary Kasymuly (1802–1847) — the last all-Kazakh Khan, commander.
Place: Entire territory of Kazakhstan.
Goal: Restore Kazakh statehood; stop colonization.
Key events: 1841: Elected khan. 1844: Temporary truce. Spring 1847: Died in war with Kyrgyz.
Result: Distracted Russian forces for 10 years, delaying conquest of Middle/Senior Zhuzes.
Национально-освободительная война 1916 г.
Leaders: Amangeldy Imanuly, Alibiy Zhangildin (Turgay); Tokash Bokin, Bekbolat Ashekeev (Semirechye).
Trigger: Decree of June 25, 1916 on "requisition" of men aged 18–43 for rear work.
Turgay uprising: ~50,000 rebels; Oct 22, 1916 — siege of Turgay; continued until 1917.
Result: Growth of national consciousness; 400,000+ Kazakhs fled Kazakhstan; merged with February Revolution.
Sociology
3 лекции · Введение, теории, стратификация · Giddens, Marx, Weber, Merton
- Sociology — systematic study of human society, social groups, and social interactions (Brinkerhoff et al.)
- Studies "how?" and "why?" — not just what happens, but the social forces behind it
- Sociological imagination (C. Wright Mills / Giddens) — thinking beyond personal experience to see social structures
- Origins: Industrial Revolution + French Revolution → need to understand rapid social change
- 3 core theories: Structural Functionalism, Conflict Theory, Symbolic Interactionism
- Giddens: "Sociology tells us how to become what we want to be"
Социология — что это?
Classic definitions: "science of social institutions" (Durkheim), "social relations" (Small), "society" (Davis), "collective behavior" (Park), "man in relation to others" (Jones). Modern: systematic study of human society, groups, and interactions (Brinkerhoff et al., 2011).
Социологическое воображение
Concept by C. Wright Mills, developed by Giddens. The ability to 'think oneself away' from familiar daily routines and see personal troubles as connected to broader social issues. Example: Why do you drink coffee? → globalization, consumer culture, urban work rhythms, status, inequality.
История и истоки
Born in the context of two revolutions: Industrial Revolution (factories, urbanization, class formation) and French Revolution (political upheaval, new social orders). Founding fathers: Comte, Spencer, Marx, Durkheim, Weber. Founding mothers: Harriet Martineau, Jane Addams, Ida B. Wells.
Зачем изучать социологию?
Understanding institutions, cultures & norms. Critical thinking — questioning "common sense." Analyzing social problems (inequality, crime, media). For IT students: user behavior, design thinking, digital ethics, online communities, AI & social challenges, workplace skills.
Три основные теории
Structural Functionalism — society as an organism with interrelated parts (Durkheim, Parsons). Conflict Theory — society as competition for limited resources (Marx, Weber). Symbolic Interactionism — focus on meaning and everyday interactions (Mead, Goffman).
Социологическое воображение на примере кофе ☕
Why is coffee popular? Sociological lenses reveal: globalization (supply chains), consumer culture (lifestyle branding), urban rhythms (coffee break = work culture), status & identity, cafés as "third places," digital culture (Instagram coffee pics), inequality (farmers vs. global markets), cultural imperialism (Western brands).
- Structural Functionalism: Society = organism; each part has a function; Merton's manifest/latent functions & dysfunctions
- Conflict Theory: Society = competition for resources; Marx (class conflict, bourgeoisie vs proletariat); Weber (class + status + power)
- Symbolic Interactionism: Meaning created through interaction; Goffman's dramaturgical analysis; social reality as theater
- Constructivism: Reality is socially constructed; deviance has no universal definition
- Modern theories: Giddens (reflexive modernization), Beck (risk society), Bauman (liquid modernity)
- "Theory is the net we throw out to catch the world" — to rationalize, explain, and dominate it
Структурный функционализм
Sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet biological & social needs. Key thinkers: Comte, Durkheim, Spencer, Parsons, Merton. Analogy: society = human body, each organ has a function. Criticized for ignoring inequality and conflict.
Роберт Мертон — функции и дисфункции
Manifest functions — intended, recognized consequences of a social process (e.g., school teaches math). Latent functions — unintended, unrecognized consequences (e.g., school creates peer networks). Dysfunctions — undesirable consequences that harm society (e.g., excessive homework → burnout).
Теория конфликта
Society = competition for limited resources. Key thinkers: Marx (class conflict: capitalists vs. proletariat), Weber (class + status + party), DuBois (race), Mills (power elite), Dahrendorf. Focus: inequality, power, domination, resistance.
Маркс vs Вебер
Marx: 2 classes — capitalists (own means of production) vs. proletariat (sell labor). Exploitative relationship. Focus = economics.
Weber: Three dimensions — class (economic), status (social honor/prestige), party (political power). Also: race, gender, education affect inequality.
Символический интеракционизм
Focuses on how individuals interact & create meaning through symbols. Key thinkers: Weber, Mead, Cooley, Goffman, Homans, Blau. Micro-level approach — studies everyday face-to-face interactions. Now applied to digital life: social media, gaming, online dating.
Драматургический анализ Гоффмана
Erving Goffman (1922–1982): Social life = theater. People are actors following cultural "scripts," switching roles moment to moment. Key concepts: front stage (public performance), back stage (private self), impression management. Since situations are uncertain, people improvise roles.
Конструктивизм
Extends symbolic interactionism: reality is socially constructed through interaction. What endures = meanings widely shared in society. Applied to deviance: no universal definition — different cultures define it differently. Example: finding a wallet (US: turn in to authorities vs. Eastern: return to owner directly).
Современные социологические теории
Giddens → reflexive modernization (we reflect on & reshape our own social practices). Beck → risk society (modern dangers: nuclear, ecological, financial). Bauman → liquid modernity (fluid identities, unstable institutions). Multiple modernities → no single path of development.
- Social stratification = structured inequalities between different groupings of people
- 3 characteristics of all stratified systems: rankings apply to categories, life chances depend on rank, ranks change slowly
- 4 types: Slavery, Caste, Apartheid, Social Class
- Marx: Class = relationship to means of production (capitalists vs. proletariat)
- Weber: Class + Status + Party = SES (Socioeconomic Status)
- Social mobility: Vertical, Horizontal, Intergenerational, Intragenerational, Structural
- Social structure: recurrent patterns of relationships → Status, Role, Institution
- 5 basic social institutions: family, economy, government, education, religion
Социальная стратификация
Structured inequalities between different groupings of people. Criteria: wealth, income, education, gender, race, age, occupation, social status, power, ethnicity. Results in social inequality — unequal distribution of wealth, power, and prestige.
Рабство
The most extreme form of stratification — legal ownership of people. Practiced since earliest times, continues in modern forms (India, South Asia, West Africa). Three characteristics: universal, long-lasting, involves total control over person.
Кастовая система
Status determined by family history/background — cannot be changed. Classic example: India. Caste-based discrimination prohibited by India's constitution in 1949, but still prevalent. Status is ascribed (given at birth), not achieved.
Апартеид
Racial segregation system in South Africa. Legal 1948–1991. Four groups: white (English/Dutch heritage), Indian, "colored" (mixed race), black. Government-enforced separation in education, housing, transportation, public spaces.
Социальный класс
Stratification based on access to wealth, property, power, prestige. Different from older systems: fluid (movable), economically based, positions partly achieved, large-scale & impersonal. SES (Socioeconomic Status) = individual's place within a class system.
3 характеристики стратификации
1) Rankings apply to social categories (not just individuals). 2) People's life experiences & opportunities depend heavily on their category's rank. 3) The ranks of categories tend to change very slowly over time.
Маркс: теория классового конфликта
Social class = group sharing a common relationship to the means of production. Two main classes: capitalists/bourgeoisie (own means of production) vs. proletariat/working class (sell their labor). Relationship is exploitative. Focus: economic issues.
Вебер: три измерения
Three independent dimensions: Class (economic position, skills, credentials), Status (social honor/prestige accorded by others), Party (group working together toward common aims). Together = socioeconomic position. Also considers education, race, gender as modifying factors.
Социальная мобильность
Movement of individuals/groups within hierarchical class system. Types:
• Vertical — up or down the hierarchy
• Horizontal — same level, different position
• Intergenerational — between parent and child generations
• Intragenerational — within one person's lifetime
• Structural — caused by changes in the economy/society
Социальные структуры и институты
Social structures = recurrent patterns of relationships. Analyzed through: Status (achieved vs. ascribed), Role (role conflict, role strain), Institution.
5 basic social institutions: Family, Economy, Government (Politics), Education, Religion.
Cultural Studies
2 семинара · Морфология культуры, семиотика, анатомия · Tylor, Saussure, Peirce, Sapir-Whorf
- Cultural Studies term introduced by Leslie Alvin White (1900–1975), American anthropologist
- Culture (Tylor, 1871): "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society"
- UNESCO (1982): culture = distinct spiritual, material, intellectual, and emotional features of a society; encompasses arts, lifestyle, human rights, value systems, traditions, beliefs
- Material culture = physical objects; Non-material culture = ideas, values, norms, symbols
- Subculture — groups with distinct values at variance with mainstream; Counterculture — values that run counter to established society
- Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis (Linguistic Relativity): language structures influence how speakers think, behave, and shape culture itself
- Digital culture = participatory culture — users not only consume but also contribute (Uzelac)
Что такое культура?
Tylor (1871): "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom..." UNESCO (1982): distinct spiritual, material, intellectual, and emotional features of a society. Why is it hard to define? Culture is everywhere, constantly changing, and subjective.
Материальная и нематериальная культура
Material culture — physical, tangible objects made by humans: tools, buildings, clothing, food, technology. Non-material culture — intangible: values, norms, beliefs, language, symbols, customs, rituals, laws, worldviews.
Субкультура и контркультура
Subculture (Barker): groups sharing distinct values and norms at variance with dominant society. They offer "maps of meaning" making the world intelligible. Examples: gamers, K-pop fans, hackers. Counterculture: values that actively run counter to established society (e.g., punk, hippies).
Гипотеза Сепира-Уорфа
Linguistic relativity: the structures and words of a language influence how its speakers think, behave, and ultimately shape the culture itself. Example: some languages have many words for snow (Inuit) vs. one — speakers perceive snow differently. Language is not just a tool — it shapes reality.
Язык культуры как система знаков
Culture communicates through systems of signs: natural language, body language, ritual, art, architecture, clothing. Each culture has its own "language" of symbols. Example: a red flag = danger (Western) vs. communism (political) vs. a literal red cloth. Context determines meaning.
Цифровая культура
Digital culture = participatory culture where users not only consume but also contribute (Uzelac). Digital youth subcultures: music + streaming platforms, fan culture (K-pop fandoms), gaming communities. Question: Can contemporary youth culture exist entirely offline? (Barker, p.582)
- Cultural code = key to understanding culture; a set of images associated with stereotypes (mentality). Types: preliterate, written, screen, digital
- Early religion forms: animism → fetishism → totemism → pantheism → deism → monotheism
- Morality: formation as a spiritual culture problem; The Golden Rule; Trolley Problem as moral paradox
- Signs & Symbols (Saussure): sign = signifier + signified; Peirce: icon, index, symbol
- Semiotics founders: Ferdinand de Saussure (1829–1905), Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914)
- Myth types: creation myths, foundation/origin myths, eschatological (end-time) myths
Культурный код
Cultural code = the key to understanding culture; a set of images associated with a complex of stereotypes (mentality) in the mind. It answers: how are images, symbols, and information transmitted across generations and cultures?
4 типа глобальных культурных кодов
1. Preliterate (traditional) — oral tradition, rituals, oral memory, storytelling.
2. Written (book) — texts, manuscripts, printed books; literacy-based.
3. Screen — cinema, TV, visual media; image-based communication.
4. Digital — internet, social media, hypertext, interactive; participatory.
Ранние формы религиозных верований
Animism — all things have a spirit/soul (E.B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, 1871).
Fetishism — magical power attributed to objects.
Totemism — sacred kinship with an animal/plant (totem pole).
Pantheism — God = everything in nature.
Deism — God created the world but does not intervene.
Monotheism — one God (Islam, Christianity, Judaism).
Формирование нравственности
Morality = core of spiritual culture. The Golden Rule: "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you" — universal moral principle across cultures. Paradoxes of moral culture: Trolley Problem — can sacrificing one save many? Morality is culturally conditioned yet seeks universal principles.
Семиотика Соссюра
Ferdinand de Saussure (1829–1905): A sign = signifier (sound-image, the form) + signified (concept, the meaning). The relationship is arbitrary — no natural connection. Example: the word "tree" 🌲 has no inherent connection to the actual tree. Language is a system of differences.
Семиотика Пёрса
Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914): Three types of signs:
Icon — resembles what it represents (photo, portrait, map).
Index — has a causal/physical connection (smoke → fire; footprints → animal; clock → time).
Symbol — arbitrary, conventional connection (words, national flags, ⚡ danger sign, ❤️ love).
Миф как культурный феномен
Myths are not just "false stories" — they are meaning-making narratives fundamental to all cultures. Types:
Creation myths — how the world was created (Genesis, Tengri).
Foundation myths — origin of religions, nations, states.
Eschatological myths — end of the world (apocalypse, Ragnarök). Also: hero myths, trickster myths, etc.
Примеры: иконы, индексы, символы
Icons: Photo of a person, portrait, realistic painting, map of a country.
Indexes: Clock 🕐 (time passing), pawprints (animal was here), smoke (fire nearby), phone icon 📞 (call).
Symbols: ❤️ (love), ⚡ (electricity/danger), GitHub cat logo, Kazakh ornament (koshkar-miz), national flags.
Psychology
2 лекции · Введение + Личность · Freud, Big Five (OCEAN), Dark Triad, Defence Mechanisms
- Psychology = scientific study of behavior, mental processes, emotions, thinking, memory, perception, learning, and social interaction
- Psychology is NOT: mind reading, only therapy, or just common sense
- Course topics: Introduction → Personality → Motivation → Emotion & EI → Stress & Wellbeing → Values & Norms → Communication → Social Psychology
- For IT students: teamwork, user behavior, digital habits, attention & distraction
- Main textbook: David G. Myers, Psychology in Modules, 11th ed.
Что такое психология?
The scientific study of behavior, mental processes, emotions, thinking, memory, perception, learning, and social interaction. Uses empirical methods — observation, experiments, surveys. Not mysticism, not just "common sense."
Что психология изучает и не изучает
IS: behavior, mental processes, emotions, thinking, memory, perception, learning, social interaction.
IS NOT: mind reading, only therapy, "just common sense." Psychology uses the scientific method to test claims, not intuition alone.
Зачем IT-специалистам психология?
General: understand yourself and others, improve learning & memory, manage stress & motivation, communicate better, make better decisions.
IT-specific: teamwork dynamics, understanding user behavior, managing digital habits, attention and distraction in tech environments.
Темы курса психологии
Introduction → Personality → Motivation & Behavior → Emotion & Emotional Intelligence → Stress & Wellbeing → Values & Norms → Communication → Social Psychology. Mid Term covers first 4 topics.
- Personality = unique and relatively stable patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors; consistent over time and across situations
- 4 frameworks: Psychoanalytic (Freud), Humanistic (Rogers/Maslow), Trait Theory (Allport/Eysenck), Social-Cognitive (Bandura)
- Big Five / OCEAN: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism
- Dark Triad: Machiavellianism, Narcissism, Psychopathy → linked to toxic leadership & cheating
- D Factor = dark core underlying all dark traits: tendency to seek gain at others' cost
- Freud's structural model: Id (pleasure principle), Ego (reality principle), Superego (moral judge)
- 7 defence mechanisms: Repression, Denial, Projection, Displacement, Regression, Rationalization, Sublimation
Личность — определение
Unique and relatively stable patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors characterizing an individual. Influences how we interact with the world, make decisions, build relationships, and respond to challenges. Key: consistent over time and across situations.
Психодинамический подход
Personality shaped by unconscious conflicts and childhood experiences you're unaware of today. Example: always attracted to controlling partners because of childhood sibling dynamics — without realizing it. Key scholars: Freud. Also Neo-Freudian: Adler, Jung, Erikson, Horney — added social drives, inferiority complex, life stages.
Гуманистический подход
Free will — you choose who to be. Personality = journey toward becoming the most authentic version of yourself (self-actualization). Example: choosing Art over Business against parental pressure because creativity = your true self. Key: Rogers' person-centered approach; Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
Теория черт личности
Personality = a set of stable, measurable characteristics ("tags"). Modern version: McCrae & Costa — Big Five (OCEAN). Example: you're always the "planner" in the group with a color-coded schedule. Traits are consistent predictors of behavior.
Социально-когнитивный подход
Personality = collection of habits learned through reinforcement or modeling. Key: Bandura's observational learning. Example: you were quiet, but when people rewarded your jokes with laughter, you "learned" to be the class clown. Also: Skinner — behavior shaped by rewards/punishments.
Биологический подход
"Born this way" — personality largely = DNA, brain chemistry, temperament from birth. Example: same upbringing, but one sibling is always a risk-taker, the other always cautious. Twin studies show ~50% of personality variance is heritable. Biological approach focuses on genetic predispositions.
Тёмная триада личности
1. Machiavellianism — manipulation, deceit, "people are tools."
2. Narcissism — ego, need for admiration, entitlement.
3. Psychopathy — lack of empathy, antisocial behavior, callousness.
Linked to: toxic leadership, unethical behavior, academic cheating (especially narcissism → "I deserve good grades without trying").
Тёмное ядро личности (D-фактор)
All dark traits share one underlying root: D = tendency to seek personal gain at the cost of others, justified by beliefs like "I deserve it" or "others are weak." Research: N=2,500 across 4 studies (Moshagen et al., 2018). D predicts unethical behavior, aggression, manipulation better than any single dark trait alone.
Тёмная триада и академическая нечестность
Study (N=387 university students, 3 universities): Dark Triad traits → higher cheating & plagiarism. Key mediator: academic entitlement ("teacher is responsible if I fail"). High dark traits (especially narcissism) → belief "I deserve grades without effort" → rule-breaking behavior. (Curtis et al., 2022)
Структурная модель Фрейда
Id — present from birth; pleasure principle: "I want it NOW!" (food, sex, comfort, immediate gratification).
Superego — moral standards; develops through upbringing; "That's not right!"
Ego — conscious, rational; reality principle; balances id and superego in socially acceptable ways.
When overwhelmed → triggers defence mechanisms.
Модель айсберга (уровни сознания)
Conscious (tip above water): thoughts, perceptions we're aware of.
Preconscious (just below): memory, stored knowledge, accessible with effort.
Unconscious (deep underwater): instincts, fears, repressed memories, selfish motives. Defense mechanisms operate to keep unconscious content out of consciousness.
Algorithms & Data Structures
Ключевые темы курса · Big-O, сортировки, структуры данных, деревья, графы
- Big-O описывает наихудшую сложность алгоритма при росте n → ∞, игнорируя константы
- Порядок роста (лучшее → худшее): O(1) → O(log n) → O(n) → O(n log n) → O(n²) → O(2ⁿ) → O(n!)
- Time complexity = количество операций; Space complexity = объём памяти
- Правила: константы отбрасываются (O(2n) = O(n)); берётся доминирующий член (O(n² + n) = O(n²))
- Best / Average / Worst case — алгоритм может вести себя по-разному в зависимости от входных данных
- Array — фиксированный размер, случайный доступ O(1), вставка/удаление O(n)
- Linked List — динамический размер, вставка O(1) в начало, поиск O(n). Singly / Doubly / Circular
- Stack — LIFO (Last In First Out). Push/Pop O(1). Применение: undo, call stack, DFS
- Queue — FIFO (First In First Out). Enqueue/Dequeue O(1). Применение: BFS, задачи планировщика
- Deque — двусторонняя очередь: вставка/удаление с обоих концов O(1)
Массив vs Связный список
Array: O(1) access by index, O(n) insert/delete (shift). Fixed size. Cache-friendly.
Linked List: O(n) access, O(1) insert at head. Dynamic size. Extra pointer memory. Use arrays when random access needed; linked lists when frequent insertions at head.
Стек
Last In First Out. Operations: push(x) — add to top, pop() — remove from top, peek() — view top. All O(1). Applications: function call stack, undo/redo, expression parsing, DFS traversal, bracket matching.
Очередь
First In First Out. Operations: enqueue(x) — add to rear, dequeue() — remove from front. All O(1) with deque. Applications: BFS, CPU scheduling, print queues, producer-consumer problems.
Виды связных списков
Singly — each node → next. Doubly — each node ↔ prev & next (O(1) delete by reference). Circular — tail points back to head. Key operations: insert at head O(1), search O(n), delete by value O(n).
- Bubble Sort O(n²) — swap adjacent; simple but slow. Stable.
- Selection Sort O(n²) — find min, put to front. Not stable.
- Insertion Sort O(n²) worst, O(n) best — good for nearly-sorted data. Stable.
- Merge Sort O(n log n) always — divide & conquer, extra O(n) space. Stable.
- Quick Sort O(n log n) avg, O(n²) worst — partition around pivot. In-place. Not stable.
- Heap Sort O(n log n) always — uses max-heap. In-place. Not stable.
- Stable sort: equal elements maintain original order. Important when sorting by multiple keys.
- Binary Tree — каждый узел имеет не более 2 детей. Traversal: In-order (LNR), Pre-order (NLR), Post-order (LRN)
- BST (Binary Search Tree) — left < root < right. Search/Insert/Delete: O(h), h = height. Balanced: O(log n)
- AVL Tree — самобалансирующееся BST. Высота всегда O(log n). |balance| ≤ 1
- Heap — Max-Heap: parent ≥ children. Min-Heap: parent ≤ children. Insert/Delete: O(log n). Build: O(n)
- Priority Queue реализуется через heap. Используется в Dijkstra, Heap Sort
Обходы дерева
In-order (LNR): left → node → right. Для BST даёт отсортированный порядок!
Pre-order (NLR): node → left → right. Для копирования дерева.
Post-order (LRN): left → right → node. Для удаления дерева.
Level-order (BFS): по уровням, используется Queue.
Операции BST
Search: O(h). Insert: O(h). Delete: 3 случая — нет детей (просто удалить), 1 ребёнок (замена), 2 ребёнка (заменить на in-order successor).
Balanced BST (AVL, Red-Black): гарантирует O(log n) для всех операций.
Куча (Heap)
Max-Heap: parent ≥ children. Корень = максимум. Min-Heap: parent ≤ children. Корень = минимум.
Реализация через массив: parent(i) = (i-1)/2, left(i) = 2i+1, right(i) = 2i+2.
Insert: O(log n) — heapify up. Extract: O(log n) — heapify down. Build: O(n).
АВЛ-дерево
Самобалансирующееся BST. Balance Factor = height(left) - height(right). Допустимые значения: -1, 0, +1. При нарушении: 4 вида поворотов — LL, RR, LR, RL. Гарантирует O(log n) для всех операций.
- Graph G = (V, E) — множество вершин V и рёбер E. Направленный (directed) / ненаправленный
- Representation: Adjacency Matrix O(V²) space, Adjacency List O(V+E) space
- BFS — обход в ширину (Queue). Shortest path in unweighted graph. O(V+E)
- DFS — обход в глубину (Stack/Recursion). Cycle detection, topological sort. O(V+E)
- Dijkstra — shortest path в weighted graph (non-negative weights). O((V+E) log V) с heap
- Topological Sort — линейный порядок вершин DAG. DFS-based or Kahn's algorithm
Представление графа
Adjacency Matrix: matrix[i][j] = 1 если есть ребро. O(V²) space. O(1) edge check. Good for dense graphs.
Adjacency List: list of neighbors for each vertex. O(V+E) space. Good for sparse graphs (most real-world).
BFS и DFS
BFS (Breadth-First): использует Queue. Находит кратчайший путь в невзвешенном графе. Level by level.
DFS (Depth-First): использует Stack (или рекурсию). Обнаружение циклов, топологическая сортировка, connected components. Оба O(V+E).
Алгоритм Дейкстры
Shortest path в weighted graph с неотрицательными весами. Uses Priority Queue (Min-Heap). Greedy approach: always expand lowest-cost node. O((V+E) log V). Не работает с отрицательными весами — используй Bellman-Ford.
Топологическая сортировка
Линейный порядок вершин DAG (Directed Acyclic Graph), при котором для каждого ребра u→v, u стоит перед v. Применение: порядок задач, порядок зависимостей (npm, Makefile). DFS-based: O(V+E). Kahn's algorithm (BFS): O(V+E).
- Hash Table — key → hash function → index. O(1) average for search/insert/delete
- Collision resolution: Chaining (linked list at index) or Open Addressing (linear/quadratic probing)
- Load factor = n/m (items/buckets). Should stay below 0.7 for performance
- Linear Search O(n) — sequential scan. Works on unsorted data
- Binary Search O(log n) — requires sorted array. Divide and conquer
- Dynamic Programming — memoization + optimal substructure. Examples: Fibonacci, Knapsack, LCS
Хеш-таблица
Hash function maps key → index in array. Average: O(1) insert/search/delete. Worst (all collisions): O(n). Chaining: each slot = linked list. Open addressing: probe next slot. Python dict, Java HashMap — hash tables internally.
Бинарный поиск
Requires sorted array. Each step eliminates half the search space. O(log n) time, O(1) space. Key: mid = left + (right - left) // 2. Common errors: off-by-one, infinite loop. Used in: finding element, first/last occurrence, searching in rotated array.
Динамическое программирование
Two conditions: optimal substructure (optimal solution = optimal sub-solutions) + overlapping subproblems (same subproblems repeated). Approaches: top-down + memoization (recursive + cache) or bottom-up + tabulation (iterative). Examples: Fibonacci, Knapsack, LCS, Coin Change.
Разрешение коллизий
Chaining: каждый bucket — linked list. Simple but extra memory. Open Addressing: при коллизии пробуем следующий слот. Linear probing: i+1, i+2,... Quadratic: i+1², i+2²,... Double hashing: использует вторую хеш-функцию. Load factor > 0.7 → resize (rehashing).